PART 1:

8.15 Criteria for “Professional”: For a profession to be recognized, certain criteria must be met:

1. Academic Education: Members must have a common education, often provided by formal institutions like universities.

2. Importance of Service: Society must view the service as important.

3. Professional Degree: At least an undergraduate degree is typically required; advanced professions may need a master’s or doctoral degree.

4. Professional Association: Practitioners are part of an association that provides ongoing education.

5. Autonomy: Professionals typically work independently, even within teams.

6. Ethical Code: A professional code of ethics governs the conduct of practitioners.

8.16 Differences Between Code of Conduct and Code of Ethics:

• Code of Ethics outlines general principles and values to guide decision-making (e.g., environmental responsibility).

• Code of Conduct specifies required or prohibited behaviors (e.g., sexual harassment, misconduct).

• A Code of Ethics is broad and focuses on values, while a Code of Conduct focuses on specific actions and expectations.

For vocational rehabilitation professionals, both codes are aimed at protecting clients from harm.

8.17 Personal vs. Professional Morals/Ethics:

• Personal Ethics refers to one’s own moral beliefs, whereas Professional Ethics refers to adhering to a set of guidelines or codes in a professional role.

• Conflicts can arise between personal ethics and professional obligations (e.g., a doctor refusing to prescribe a medication for personal reasons).

• Resolution Approaches:

  • Separate personal and professional ethics: In this case, the professional code takes precedence in work situations.

  • Integrate both ethics: Personal and professional ethics are seen as part of the same human experience, with their application varying by context.

For vocational rehabilitation professionals, personal beliefs may sometimes conflict with professional responsibilities, such as dealing with a client’s legal or moral decisions (e.g., the use of marijuana).

Quiz:

1. What is one of the key criteria for an occupation to be considered a “profession”?

   • a) High salary

   • b) Academic education

   • c) Social media presence

   • d) Physical appearance

2. Which of the following best describes the difference between a Code of Ethics and a Code of Conduct?

   • a) Code of Ethics is more specific than Code of Conduct.

   • b) Code of Ethics sets out principles, while Code of Conduct specifies required behaviors.

   • c) Code of Conduct includes values, while Code of Ethics is about specific behaviors.

   • d) Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct are essentially the same.

3. Which of the following is an example of professional ethics?

   • a) Refusing to help a client due to personal beliefs

   • b) Following the professional code of ethics when making decisions for clients

   • c) Ignoring the professional code of ethics because it conflicts with personal views

   • d) Making decisions based on personal beliefs rather than professional guidelines

4. What is the primary role of a professional association in a profession?

   • a) To regulate the profession’s finances

   • b) To provide ongoing education and support for professionals

   • c) To increase the salary of professionals

   • d) To create conflicts among professionals

5. What might happen if a vocational rehabilitation professional’s personal ethics conflict with their professional ethics?

   • a) They should always ignore their personal ethics

   • b) They must follow their personal beliefs in every situation

   • c) They should resolve the conflict by either adhering to the professional ethics or resigning if necessary

   • d) They should ignore the conflict and continue working without change

Answer Key:

1. b) Academic education

2. b) Code of Ethics sets out principles, while Code of Conduct specifies required behaviors.

3. b) Following the professional code of ethics when making decisions for clients

4. b) To provide ongoing education and support for professionals

5. c) They should resolve the conflict by either adhering to the professional ethics or resigning if necessary

PART 2:

8.18 Ethical Inquiries:

There are three types of ethical inquiries:

1. Normative Ethics: Focuses on determining how one "ought to act" and sets standards of right and wrong based on interpreted social behaviors. It investigates actions like lying, honesty, stealing, and more. Normative ethics includes four main theories:

   • Utilitarianism: The principle of utility, seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.

   • Kantianism: Focuses on duties and rights, with the categorical imperative as a central moral principle.

   • Ethical Intuitionism: Accepts a range of moral principles.

   • Virtue Ethics: Focuses on developing virtuous character traits.

   Professional Codes of Ethics, such as the Vocational Rehabilitation Association of Canada's Code of Ethics, are examples of normative ethics. These codes outline specific ethical behaviors for professionals.

2. Meta-Ethics: Concerned with analyzing the meaning of ethical concepts (like right, wrong, good, bad), rather than determining what is right or wrong. It seeks to clarify the nature of moral judgments. It questions things like whether moral truths exist and what it means to say an action is right or wrong. It does not focus on specific actions but on the nature of ethical statements.

3. Descriptive Ethics: Investigates people's beliefs and attitudes toward what is right and wrong, without making moral judgments. It is often seen as a scientific approach and looks at how different individuals or cultures perceive ethics. For example, it could involve studying vocational rehabilitation professionals' views on transparency and honesty.

8.19 Ethical Perspectives:

Ethical reasoning lies on a spectrum from ethical relativism to ethical objectivism:

1. Ethical Relativism: Believes that morality varies between individuals and cultures. There are two types:

   • Ethical Subjectivism: Claims that moral truths are based on individual feelings, with no moral absolutes.

   • Cultural Relativism: Argues that moral evaluations depend on cultural norms, so what is right in one culture may not be in another.

2. Ethical Objectivism: Holds that universal moral principles exist independently of personal beliefs. Examples include natural law theory, deontology, and utilitarianism. Ethical objectivists believe moral truths exist like physical facts, unaffected by individual opinion.

Quiz:

1. Which of the following is a key idea of normative ethics?

   • a) It analyzes the meaning of ethical terms.

   • b) It examines how one "ought to act" based on social behavior.

   • c) It studies people's beliefs about morality.

   • d) It investigates cultural differences in ethics.

2. What is the principle of utility associated with?

   • a) Virtue Ethics

   • b) Kantianism

   • c) Ethical Intuitionism

   • d) Utilitarianism

3. Meta-ethics is concerned with which of the following?

   • a) The actions that are morally right or wrong

   • b) Determining whether moral truths exist

   • c) The application of rules and duties

   • d) The outcomes of actions

4. What does ethical subjectivism claim?

   • a) Moral truths are universal.

   • b) Ethics is determined by the culture in which one lives.

   • c) People create their own morality based on feelings.

   • d) Moral truths are independent of individual opinions.

5. What is the focus of virtue ethics?

   • a) The consequences of actions

   • b) The development of virtuous character traits

   • c) Following moral duties and rules

   • d) Evaluating cultural norms

6. Which of the following is an example of ethical objectivism?

   • a) Ethical Subjectivism

   • b) Cultural Relativism

   • c) Deontology

   • d) Ethical Relativism

Answer Key:

1. b) It examines how one "ought to act" based on social behavior.

2. d) Utilitarianism

3. b) Determining whether moral truths exist

4. c) People create their own morality based on feelings.

5. b) The development of virtuous character traits

6. c) Deontology

PART 3

8.20 Brief Historical Overview of the History of Ethics

This section focuses on the Greco-Roman tradition of ethics, which has greatly influenced modern philosophy.

Socrates (469–399 BCE):

• Often considered the start of modern philosophy and ethics.

• His philosophy marked a shift from religious explanations of ethics to rational inquiry.

• Socrates’ method was questioning others to reveal their ignorance, and he believed that understanding "the good" led to virtuous actions.

• His most famous ideas include questioning whether ethics is based on the will of the gods (as in the Euthyphro dilemma) or if ethics is independent of religion.

• He argued that moral knowledge led to happiness and was eventually sentenced to death for his ideas, which challenged Athenian society.

Plato (427–347 BCE):

• Plato, Socrates' student, expanded on his ideas and discussed ethics extensively in his work The Republic.

• In the Ring of Gyges story, Plato explored the idea of morality, asking whether people would act ethically if they knew they wouldn’t face consequences.

• Plato believed that being ethical is valuable in itself and that virtue leads to a "healthy soul," which contributes to happiness. For Plato, a healthy soul allows one to make sound moral decisions.

• He argued that virtue is the foundation for a good and happy life, which contrasts with the idea that actions should be based on self-interest.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE):

• Aristotle, a student of Plato, took a different approach, rejecting Plato’s ideal forms.

• He believed that ethics should be grounded in the realities of life and that virtue lies in finding a balance between excess and deficiency (the "golden mean").

• Aristotle argued that happiness (eudaimonia) is the highest goal of human life, achievable through living virtuously and exercising reason.

• Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed ethics are not universal absolutes but must be context-dependent and tied to real-life choices and actions.

• His famous work, Nicomachean Ethics, focuses on how individuals can live virtuous lives and contribute to a good society.

Quiz:

1. What significant change did Socrates bring to the study of ethics?

   • a) He made ethics based entirely on religious doctrine.

   • b) He separated ethics from religion and focused on rational inquiry.

   • c) He believed that ethics were determined by political leaders.

   • d) He focused on establishing universal moral laws.

2. In Plato's Republic, what does the story of the Ring of Gyges demonstrate?

   • a) The importance of following religious teachings in ethical matters.

   • b) That people would act unethically if they could avoid consequences.

   • c) The value of self-discipline in maintaining a virtuous life.

   • d) That individuals are inherently good.

3. According to Plato, what is the relationship between ethics and happiness?

   • a) Ethics is irrelevant to happiness; happiness depends on external goods.

   • b) Ethics leads to a healthy soul, which in turn leads to happiness.

   • c) Happiness is a result of selfish actions.

   • d) Happiness can only be achieved through political power.

4. What is Aristotle's concept of the "golden mean"?

   • a) A strict adherence to moral absolutes.

   • b) Living a life of excess.

   • c) Finding a balance between extremes in moral actions.

   • d) Achieving happiness through contemplation alone.

5. How did Aristotle differ from Plato in his approach to ethics?

   • a) Aristotle believed in abstract, universal moral ideals, while Plato focused on practical ethics.

   • b) Aristotle believed ethics were dependent on the individual’s emotions, while Plato focused on logic.

   • c) Aristotle rejected Plato's theory of ideal forms and grounded ethics in real-life contexts.

   • d) Aristotle did not believe in ethics; he only focused on politics.

6. According to Aristotle, what is necessary for a person to live a virtuous life?

   • a) Complete freedom from society and external goods.

   • b) Sufficient external goods to ensure health, leisure, and moral action.

   • c) A strict political order with no room for personal freedom.

   • d) Following religious commandments strictly.

Answer Key:

1. b) He separated ethics from religion and focused on rational inquiry.

2. b) That people would act unethically if they could avoid consequences.

3. b) Ethics leads to a healthy soul, which in turn leads to happiness.

4. c) Finding a balance between extremes in moral actions.

5. c) Aristotle rejected Plato's theory of ideal forms and grounded ethics in real-life contexts.

6. b) Sufficient external goods to ensure health, leisure, and moral action.

Part 4:

Later Greek Ethics, Early Christian Ethics, and Modern Philosophy

Epicureanism:

• Founded by Epicurus (342-270 BCE).

• Views happiness (eudaimonia) as the ultimate goal, achieved through pleasure and freedom from pain.

• Long-term pleasure is sought, not short-term gratification.

• Virtue and happiness are intertwined: living a virtuous life generates the most pleasure.

Stoicism:

• Founded by Zeno of Citium (334-262 BCE), expanded by Cleanthes and Chrysippus.

• Focuses on virtue (e.g., wisdom) as the highest good and happiness.

• Teaches that external events are beyond our control; only our responses are within our control.

• Happiness is achieved by living according to reason and fulfilling one's role in the universe.

Early Christian Ethics:

• Influenced by Greek, Roman, and Jewish traditions.

• Emphasized character over formal ethics, with virtues like love, justice, and compassion.

• Early Christian thinkers (e.g., St. Augustine) incorporated Platonic and Stoic ideas.

• Emphasized a divine law and grace to guide ethical behavior.

The Middle Ages:

• Christianity became dominant after the fall of the Roman Empire.

• St. Augustine (354-430 CE) compared the "City of God" to Plato’s ideal Forms and stressed the importance of divine intervention.

• St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274 CE) blended Christian thought with Aristotelian philosophy, focusing on virtues leading to happiness and union with God.

Modern Philosophy:

• The rise of empirical science in the 17th century led to a more mechanistic view of the universe.

• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679 CE): Argued that good and evil are subjective and that humans are driven by self-interest. The social contract was proposed to maintain peace.

• David Hume (1711-1776 CE): Emphasized the distinction between facts and values, and argued that morality is based on feelings like sympathy.

• Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill: Advocated for utilitarianism, which holds that actions are morally right if they promote happiness.

• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804 CE): Developed deontological ethics, focusing on duties and principles. The “Categorical Imperative” states that actions should only be taken if they can be universalized.

Quiz

1. Who was the founder of Stoicism?

• a) Epicurus

• b) Zeno of Citium

• c) Plato

• d) St. Augustine

2. According to Epicureanism, what is the key to happiness?

• a) Virtue and wisdom

• b) Pleasure and freedom from pain

• c) Union with God

• d) Following reason

3. What is the "Categorical Imperative" in Kant’s ethical theory?

• a) An action that promotes happiness

• b) A universal moral rule to follow

• c) An emotional response to suffering

• d) A social contract to ensure peace

4. Which philosopher argued that moral reasoning is based on feelings like sympathy?

• a) David Hume

• b) Immanuel Kant

• c) Thomas Hobbes

• d) Aristotle

5. St. Thomas Aquinas was influenced by which ancient philosopher?

• a) Plato

• b) Aristotle

• c) Epicurus

• d) Zeno of Citium

6. What did Thomas Hobbes believe about human nature?

• a) Humans are naturally altruistic

• b) Humans are naturally selfish and driven by self-interest

• c) Humans are naturally virtuous

• d) Humans are naturally indifferent to happiness

7. How did Augustine compare the “City of God” in his writings?

• a) To Plato’s world of ideal Forms

• b) To the Stoic vision of virtue

• c) To Aristotle’s ethical theory

• d) To the natural world

8. According to Stoicism, what should be the focus of a person’s ethical life?

• a) Attaining wealth

• b) Experiencing pleasure

• c) Living according to reason and virtue

• d) Following divine intervention

9. What does "Utilitarianism" argue about moral actions?

• a) They are based on duty and principle

• b) They should promote happiness

• c) They are determined by divine law

• d) They are subjective to each individual's desires

10. How does Hume’s fact/value distinction relate to morality?

• a) Moral decisions are based solely on facts

• b) Reason dictates what is right and wrong

• c) Morality is based on feelings and sympathy

• d) Morality is irrelevant in society

Answer Key

1. b) Zeno of Citium

2. b) Pleasure and freedom from pain

3. b) A universal moral rule to follow

4. a) David Hume

5. b) Aristotle

6. b) Humans are naturally selfish and driven by self-interest

7. a) To Plato’s world of ideal Forms

8. c) Living according to reason and virtue

9. b) They should promote happiness

10. c) Morality is based on feelings and sympathy

PART 5:

Post-Modern Philosophy and Ethics

1. Post-Modern Philosophy Era:

   • Postmodernism began around 1950 after World War II, questioning the dominance of science from the Enlightenment era.

   • Friedrich Nietzsche critiqued conventional moral codes, especially the Judeo-Christian emphasis on duty and self-sacrifice, which he saw as rooted in the resentment of the weak (slave morality). He argued that these values have undermined human life by transforming noble, life-affirming traits into vices.

2. Recent Directions in Ethics:

   • Analytic Philosophy (early 20th century) focused on meta-ethics (studying the nature of ethical judgments). G.E. Moore argued that moral properties like "goodness" are indefinable and known through intuition.

   • Lawrence Kohlberg developed the theory of moral development with six stages grouped into three levels: pre-conventional (based on consequences), conventional (societal norms), and post-conventional (individual principles).

   • Virtue Ethics: Influenced by Aristotle, philosophers like Philippa Foot and Alistair MacIntyre revived virtue ethics, arguing morality should focus on human well-being rather than rules or consequences. Elizabeth Anscombe criticized duty-based morality without a divine lawgiver.

3. Impact on Vocational Rehabilitation:

   • Ethical issues in vocational rehabilitation are influenced by technological advances, economic realities, pluralistic worldviews, and global communication.

   • Professionals must move beyond personal opinions and intuitions to engage in global ethical discussions. Understanding historical ethical theories is crucial in addressing ethical dilemmas.

4. Branches of Western Ethics:

   • Aristotle: Emphasized justice, kindness, and charity for individual and societal benefit.

   • Kant: Focused on duty-based morality, where humans, as rational beings, must respect others and uphold moral obligations.

   • Utilitarianism: Advocated for maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.

   Normative Ethics: Concerns actions in different situations—determining right and wrong.
   Meta-Ethics: Explores the meaning of moral terms and judgments, recognizing that emotions and personal judgment can influence ethical decisions.

Quiz: Post-Modern Philosophy and Ethics

1. Who is considered to have laid the foundation for postmodern philosophy? a) G.E. Moore
   b) Friedrich Nietzsche
   c) Aristotle
   d) Lawrence Kohlberg

2. What is Nietzsche’s criticism of Judeo-Christian morality based on? a) It focuses too much on individual rights.
   b) It emphasizes duty and self-sacrifice, which Nietzsche argues is rooted in resentment from the weak.
   c) It encourages strength and nobility.
   d) It promotes materialism.

3. Which philosopher argued that moral properties like "goodness" are indefinable and known through intuition? a) Aristotle
   b) Philippa Foot
   c) G.E. Moore
   d) Immanuel Kant

4. Kohlberg's moral development stages are grouped into three levels. Which of the following is NOT one of those levels? a) Pre-conventional morality
   b) Conventional morality
   c) Post-conventional morality
   d) Universal morality

5. Which philosophical movement has recently seen a resurgence, focusing on virtue ethics? a) Analytic philosophy
   b) Existentialism
   c) Virtue ethics
   d) Deontological ethics

6. What is the main criticism Elizabeth Anscombe had regarding duty-based morality? a) It doesn't consider human emotions.
   b) It assumes there is a law without a lawgiver.
   c) It is too focused on happiness.
   d) It neglects societal expectations.

7. What did Aristotle emphasize as central to ethical life? a) Duty
   b) Happiness
   c) Virtue and moral character
   d) Consequences of actions

8. In which ethical theory is the idea of maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering central? a) Virtue ethics
   b) Deontological ethics
   c) Utilitarianism
   d) Existentialism

9. Which of the following is a key concern of meta-ethics? a) Determining right and wrong actions
   b) Exploring the meaning of ethical terms
   c) Focusing on consequences of actions
   d) Defining specific moral rules

10. In the context of vocational rehabilitation, what must professionals do to address ethical dilemmas? a) Rely on their personal beliefs
    b) Follow societal norms blindly
    c) Understand historical ethical theories and engage in the global ethical dialogue
    d) Focus solely on legal obligations

Answer Key

1. b) Friedrich Nietzsche

2. b) It emphasizes duty and self-sacrifice, which Nietzsche argues is rooted in resentment from the weak.

3. c) G.E. Moore

4. d) Universal morality

5. c) Virtue ethics

6. b) It assumes there is a law without a lawgiver.

7. c) Virtue and moral character

8. c) Utilitarianism

9. b) Exploring the meaning of ethical terms

10. c) Understand historical ethical theories and engage in the global ethical dialogue

PART6:

Ethics of Conduct

Ethical theories are essential for guiding decision-making in moral dilemmas. These theories either focus on the consequences of actions (consequentialism) or on the character of the individual performing the action (virtue ethics).

1. Deontology (Right Action)

• Definition: People should adhere to their duties and obligations when making ethical decisions.

• Key Thinker: Immanuel Kant, who proposed the categorical imperative—a moral law that is universally binding and must be followed without regard to consequences.

• Strengths: Offers consistent decision-making based on duties.

• Weaknesses: Does not help resolve conflicting duties, and it does not consider the welfare of others.

• Example: A President of a vocational rehabilitation company faces an offer from a third-party funder to provide services the company cannot fulfill. Following deontological ethics, the President would prioritize honesty over financial stability.

2. Utilitarianism (Greatest Good)

• Definition: The ethical choice is the one that benefits the most people.

• Types:

  • Act Utilitarianism: Focuses on individual actions to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number.

  • Rule Utilitarianism: Considers the rules that lead to the greatest good, respecting laws and fairness.

• Strengths: Logical, with a clear decision-making process focused on benefits.

• Weaknesses: Difficult to predict outcomes, compares different types of consequences (money vs. happiness), and doesn't account for individual rights.

• Example: A vocational rehabilitation President may weigh the potential benefits (financial stability for the company) against the harm to clients who won't be placed in jobs.

3. Virtue Ethics

• Definition: Focuses on developing good character traits (virtues) like kindness and honesty to guide decision-making.

• Key Thinker: Aristotle, who emphasized cultivating virtues to make ethical decisions naturally.

• Strengths: Emphasizes motivation and character, encouraging moral development.

• Weaknesses: Depends on factors outside personal control, such as upbringing, making it difficult to rely on universally consistent judgments.

• Example: The President would ask themselves what kind of person they want to be, choosing honesty over greed in the vocational rehabilitation scenario.

Quiz:

1. Which ethical theory focuses on adhering to duties and obligations regardless of the consequences? a) Virtue Ethics
   b) Utilitarianism
   c) Deontology
   d) Consequentialism

2. Who is the philosopher most associated with deontological ethics? a) Aristotle
   b) Immanuel Kant
   c) John Stuart Mill
   d) Socrates

3. Which form of utilitarianism prioritizes following laws and fairness? a) Act Utilitarianism
   b) Rule Utilitarianism
   c) Kantian Ethics
   d) Virtue Ethics

4. What is the primary focus of virtue ethics? a) Predicting outcomes
   b) Adhering to duties
   c) Developing good character traits
   d) Maximizing happiness for the greatest number

5. Which of the following is a strength of deontological ethics? a) Provides a clear decision-making process for conflicting duties
   b) Encourages development of moral character
   c) Offers consistency in decision-making based on duties
   d) Focuses on maximizing benefits for all

6. Which ethical theory would most likely prioritize the "greatest good for the greatest number" in decision-making? a) Virtue Ethics
   b) Utilitarianism
   c) Deontology
   d) Relativism

7. Which scenario would a utilitarian most likely find ethical? a) Breaking a promise to help a few people
   b) Following the law to benefit society
   c) Sacrificing personal happiness for the benefit of a larger group
   d) Always telling the truth, regardless of the consequences

Answer Key:

1. c) Deontology

2. b) Immanuel Kant

3. b) Rule Utilitarianism

4. c) Developing good character traits

5. c) Offers consistency in decision-making based on duties

6. b) Utilitarianism

7. c) Sacrificing personal happiness for the benefit of a larger group